Response to William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and Experience

INNOCENCE v EXPERIENCE 109 UWA 2012 William Blake’s Songs of Innocence and of Experience was combined in 1794. Having compiled Songs of Innocence in 1789, Blake intended that he was writing happy rhymes that all children may enjoy (Norton Anthology pg 118 footnote 1). Not all the poems reflect a happy stance, many incorporate injustice, evil and suffering. Blake represents these aspects of the world through the eyes of ‘innocence’. In contrary Blake’s Songs of Experience were written as ugly and terrifying versions of the same world.These poems were used to reflect a ghastly representation of the world as one of poverty, disease and war. The Songs of Innocence were penned around the end of the American Revolution and the start of the French Revolution, although Blake would have worked on them for years prior. The Songs of Experience were etched during the middle and toward the end of the revolution and reflect how the poet’s view of the world had bee n affected and changed by the horrific events. Blake’s work is a compilation of a number of ‘songs’.Although each can stand as an independent poem many from Songs of Innocence have a pair in Songs of Experience such as â€Å"Infant Joy† – â€Å"Infant Sorrow†, â€Å"The Lamb† – â€Å"The Tyger† and â€Å"The Ecchoing Green† – â€Å"The Earth’s Answer. † Taking â€Å"Infant Joy,† from Songs of Innocence, it is told from the perspective of a baby â€Å"but two days old. † The baby is perceived as happy and joyous through lines such as â€Å"joy is my name/Sweet joy befall thee! † and plays on the common ideology that infants are happy and loveable.Yet, its counterpart â€Å"Infant Sorrow,† from Songs of Experience, still told from the perspective of the new born, presents the harsh reality of child birth: â€Å"My mother groand! My father wept. /Into the dangerous wor ld I leapt. † The organisation of the work in this way presents two contrasting views of the world from the same perspective. I believe that the main problem that motivates Blake appears to be the comparison between childhood innocence and what we really experience in the world. The modern idea of wearing ‘rose tinted glasses’ springs to mind, in the sense that as a child we view the world as this magnificent, beautiful nd happy place but as we grow and learn more about ourselves and the world our experiences begin to taint that ‘innocent’ view and the world becomes ugly, harsh and cruel. The primary focus of Blake’s work is to create contrast between the fanciful, innocent view of the unjust, evil and suffering world and the harsh reality that suffering, war, poverty and disease really bring. These songs would have been read to children and it can be presumed that it was Blake’s attempt to teach them something about the world in which t hey were living through engaging their imaginations with his use of poetry.

Grimm Fairy Tales vs Disney Stories

Grimm vs. Disney: The Making of a Fairy Tale Amber Brandenburg English 121 Proffessor Kari Lomanno 8/13/2012 The fairy tales that we grew up with are not the originals. Disney and the brothers Grimm had two very different versions. While many of us grew up watching cute birds and mice following the woe begotten princess, the original stories were forgotten by most. These stories were far darker, ending in cruel justice for a stepsister or worse. The difference between aspects of the two tales discussed, in some instances, is the difference between night and day. Grimm fairy tales contain more violence, harsher villains, and swifter justice.The first example of this can be seen in the difference between Disney’s and Grimm’s versions of Cinderella. In the Disney version of the story, Cinderella is a poor girl who lives with her stepmother and sisters. She wishes to go to the ball and she falls in love with him before running off to make her curfew. Then of course, he come s to her rescue and everything ends happily ever after. The good characters are good and the bad characters are bad. There is a happy ending and no one really gets hurt in the end. Grimm’s Cinderella is a similar tale with some fiercer consequences to the villains.The Grimm version has many of the same plot elements and devices as the story we all know and love. In this version her father is still alive and still lets the rest of the family treat her like a slave. Instead of a fairy godmother granting her wish it is a tree she planted on her mother’s grave and some birds. When the sisters try on the golden shoe one cuts off her toes, while the other cuts off her heels and the birds chant that neither could be the prince’s proper bride. Finally, the sisters are punished at Cinderella’s wedding by birds who peck their eyes out, leaving them forever blind.Snow white, another acclaimed Disney tale, also contains plot devices and ending punishments that are ve ry different from the cookie cutter nice endings of Disney. Everyone knows that Snow white is the daughter of a King who remarries an evil stepmother. Everyone knows that when the queen discovers that Snow White’s beauty is greater than hers, she asks the huntsman to kill her. Finally, we all know that the dwarves take care of her until her death, at which point the prince comes to the rescue and awakens her with a kiss. These are all elements of the story that we come to expect when we hear the name Snow White.In the brothers Grimm version, the queen still demands the death of Snow White and the Huntsman still lets her go. Only this time he kills a boar and brings the queen back its lungs and liver and she eats them, thinking that they are from Snow White’s body. Snow White still meets the dwarves in the woods, but their introduction to her was more akin to that of goldilocks and the three bears. Then, when she is poisoned by the apple, the kiss of the prince is not w hat awakens her. Instead the prince begs the dwarves to have her dead body and the trip to the castle dislodges the apple bite caught in her throat.Finally, at the marriage of the happy couple, the queen arrives and is forced to dance in red hot iron shoes until she dies. Definitely not what one would remember from the Disney adaptation. These are just two examples out of many. The versions of fairy tales by Grimm and Disney are always similar in nature and moral. The differences in the details of the story range from minute to highly significant. The punishments placed upon the villains are always more severe than those placed upon the villains in the tales spun by Disney.The older Grimm stories definitely place a higher importance on the eye for an eye methodology of punishment than its newer Disney counterpart. The morals are the same, just the details and severities of the punishments differ. References Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm,  Sneewittchen, Kinder- und Hausmarchen, (Children 's and Household Tales — Grimms' Fairy Tales), final edition (Berlin, 1857), no. 53 Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, Cinderella (Children's and Household Tales — Grimms' Fairy Tales), final edition (Berlin, 1857), no. 21

Bilingual Education Essay

The presence of bilingual students in U. S. schools is significant and the result of internal and external historical factors. Educators and policymakers must consider their needs and potential contribution to our education system. The multiplicity of languages and the complex nature of bilinguals renders a complicated but exciting educational field for research, practice, and educational innovation. Unfortunately, languages become entangled in political battles, dragging the education and the future of innocent children into such conflicts. Indigenous inhabitants, colonizers, and immigrants to the United States have and continue to represent a variety of language backgrounds. Like it or not, the United States is highly multilingual. Fashions in using language in education and attitudes toward bilingualism have undergone many changes since the United States became independent. During the initial colonization of the United States, European settlers used the languages of their countries of origin. The Continental Congress considered French and German important for political purposes. It recognized the need to disseminate information among disparate populations to broaden the cause of independence (Heath, 1976). The settlers established schools that educated their children in their own languages, especially French, German, Spanish, and Swedish, while teaching English as a second language. Schools that used English as the medium of instruction taught one of the other European languages as a second language ( Keller & Van Hooft, 1982). The presence of many languages in U. S. schools was an accepted reality until the 1870s. â€Å"Newspapers, schools, and societies provided instructional support for diverse languages† (Heath, 1981, p. 7). There was, however, concern for seeking a common language, especially to conduct government affairs (Heath, 1981). The original colonies and territories incorporated later into the Union comprised local governments that used different languages, such as German in Pennsylvania, French in Louisiana, and Spanish in New Mexico and California. English, nevertheless, always played an important role in the public life of the colonies because from the beginning England colonized the United States. The form of government embraced after the American Revolution reflected English values (Conklin & Lourie, 1983). Economic and historic factors helped solidify the position of English as the language of government. During the first half of the 20th century, English was imposed as the language of instruction in most states. As many as 34 states enacted laws mandating English as the language of instruction. Other languages were forbidden and teachers could be fined or jailed if found using them: â€Å"No polyglot empire of the old world has dared be as ruthless in imposing a single language upon its whole population as was the liberal republic ‘dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal'† ( Johnson, 1949, pp. 118-119). Political, social, and economic rationales for denigrating all languages other than English advanced linguistic and cognitive theories that attacked bilingualism. Public schools quickly adopted a â€Å"sink or swim† attitude during the first half of the 20th century. Special programs such as English as a Second Language (ESL) served only adults. The assumption was that children learn languages easily and nothing special needed to be done. Nevertheless, despite the lack of public support for bilingual education, there were bilingual programs–mostly dual language programs–in private and parochial schools. These schools extended the required curriculum to include instruction in the cultural, linguistic, and religious heritages of the particular ethnic group. A great number of them were bilingual (Fishman & Markman, 1979). National interest in bilingual education spread when Title VII, the Bilingual Education Act (an amendment to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act) was enacted in 1968. This federal legislation provided funds to create bilingual programs in poor school districts (Lyons, 1990). The impact of the federal law, both good and bad, was widely felt. A number of states reversed the laws that permitted English as the only language of instruction by passing bilingual education legislation. Massachusetts was the first state to enact such a law with its Transitional Bilingual Education Act (1971). More than 20 other states followed Massachusetts’ example by creating transitional bilingual education programs (August & Garcia, 1988). Evidently, during the past two centuries, use of languages in education has been increasingly politicized. History has repeated itself but in modified ways. The acceptance of languages in education observed in the early part of the 19th century was apparent again in the 1970s but languages other than English appeared in schools with a much lower status with respect to English than they had a century earlier. The imposition of English only at the turn of the century reappeared in the 1980s, although this time some minority students were served by special English language programs rather than leaving all to sink or swim. Efforts to make English speakers fluent in other languages have also seen ups and downs. Suspicion toward foreigners in the early part of the century discouraged second language learning. Interest in foreign language learning following World War II wavered in the 1970s. The pendulum is swinging again in favor of bilingualism for English speakers. Foreign language programs are starting earlier in elementary schools and bilingual education programs that promote bilingualism are becoming increasingly popular (Met & Galloway, 1992). However, most successful bilingual programs have been created not by legislative mandates but by concerned educators and communities working together. Good education for bilingual students should not be the outcome of compliance with legislation. Schools must be willing to create good programs suitable for all students, including bilinguals. To overcome resistance to implementing bilingual education, many communities resort to politics or lawsuits to force school districts to provide bilingual education. However, political solutions create their own problems, paradoxically compromise and rigidity. For example, laws and regulations that impose a 3-year maximum for students attending bilingual education programs arose as a compromise between the forces for and against bilingual education. Research shows time and again that students profit from long-term bilingual instruction, even though some students who stay shorter periods eventually succeed in mainstream education (Kleinfeld, 1979). Consequently, it is clear that historically Americans have not showed great tolerance to linguistic diversity. There have been repeated efforts to make English an official language in the country by restricting bilingualism, as well as attempts to enhance more ESL programs on the other side. There is an ongoing disagreement regarding whether or not ESL program meets its initial objective, the ways it affects American society, and its necessity. The opponents of bilingual teaching argue it is expensive for the country, keeps immigrants socially isolated, slows down the assimilation process, creates a retreat of an official language and dissolves the unity of America. Generally, a lot of people form negative assumptions about bilingual programs based on their ideological beliefs, political views, personal observations, negative experience or simply generalizations and stereotyping based on limited knowledge about ESL classes (Rojas, 2003). These judgments usually lack evidence and logical reasoning, and thus cannot objectively analyze the program’s weaknesses or disadvantages. As Maria Brisk observes, â€Å"Much of the debate on bilingual education is politically motivated, more suitable for talk shows than for improving schools† (Rojas, 2003). And indeed, ESL programs are viewed more as a tool to solve multiple social problems (which, certainly, are also important)–minority groups’ rights, language diversity, melting pot, the unity of the country, a threat to the existence of dominant culture, and so on–instead of focusing on the quality of education our school-age population is receiving and the environment they are placed in. Policymakers should definitely pay more attention to the program’s educational effectiveness and dramatic improvement in students’ academic progress when deciding whether public schools need ESL classes. Because public schools have quite a significant influence on children’s learning and personal development, we are responsible of making it a positive schooling experience for all students despite their ethnic background or native language. Bilingual education helps students to learn English faster, provides a friendly learning environment, improves academic progress, encourages kids to become proficient in two languages, teaches cultural awareness, and preserves minorities’ linguistic human rights. It has been proven that students who are enrolled in bilingual classes have better scores on standardized tests, such as the ACT’s and SAT’s, than those who are not enrolled in bilingual classes. Bilingual education is beneficial for our country and enables students to learn English as well as keeping their native tongue for future success in our global economy. Bilingual education works in our society and should stay intact within the schools and should be funded to enable students who wish to take these classes should be able to. However, it is not the question of whether bilingual programs work (obviously they do), but more the question of how our society addresses cultural and linguistic diversity. Recent studies have proven that bilingual teaching dramatically increases students’ educational progress both in English communicational skills and other content in curriculum. Students who attend a regular English class right away usually fall behind in subjects taught in English and experience negative consequences in psychological development. ESL system doesn’t disregard the need for acquisition of English; indeed, it one of the most important outcomes of effective bilingual education programs (Zehr, 2004). Looking at the money spent on bilingual education program (when funds are being cut off from other public services across the country) may lead to consideration of abolishing bilingual system and focusing on the projects that affect all students in education system instead. The United States spends approximately $12 billion on bilingual education each year (Wood, 1997) and over $100 million was spent to study the effectiveness of ESL programs (Mujica, 2003). Because American taxpayers don’t benefit from bilingual instruction directly, many communities and states are unwilling to pay that expense and are quick to cut back regardless its potential positive results. Nevertheless, even though we give up other things that could be otherwise purchased, bilingual programs in public schools is a critical factor in foreign students’ learning process. Besides the fact that bilingual teaching dramatically increases academic performance, it also encourages more parents to send their children to school and that, in turn, motivates more students to become educated. In other words, the money spent on ESL programs should not be associated with an opportunity cost of ignoring other important problems. Instead, it is a valuable investment in students’ success at school as well as assimilation into American society. The issue of bilingual education in relationship to our global economy enables students enrolled in these classes to have a better future than those students who only speak English. Jeff MacSwan, supporter of bilingual education and assistant professor of curriculum and instruction at Arizona State University, is quoted about bilingual education in our global economy when he says, â€Å"Multilingualism is an asset, and Arizona must embrace it† (MacSwan, 1998). Arizona Senator John McCain also believes that bilingual education is an asset to children. He states that, â€Å"Arizona should strengthen them (bilingual classes) and make similar resources available to all children† (MacSwan). In fact, McCain has introduced a program that enables students to be in programs like these. McCain’s program is called â€Å"English-Plus† (MaSwan) which acknowledges the great importance of bilingualism in our modern global economy. McCain is quoted concerning bilingual education when he says, â€Å"People should not have to abandon the language of their birth to learn the language of their future†¦The ability to speak languages in addition to English is a tremendous resource to our community† (MacSwan). In addition, the benefits of bilingual education in our global economy can be seen when US Secretary Richard Riley said, â€Å"When they enter the work force in several years we will regret the inability of our children to speak two languages. Our global economy demands it; our children deserve it† (Pratt, 2000). Undoubtedly, in addition to educational advantage, adult bilinguals with a complete grasp of two or more languages, can be more successful economically and benefit more to their communities than their single-language peers. Our public services employ staff as translators in order to keep abreast of the constantly growing immigrant population. Increased marketable skills are an advantage of bilingual fluency. Because of the aforementioned educational advantages, bilinguals can offer a flexibility and level of problem-solving ability that surpasses the average monolingual. According to Graciela Kenig, author of The Best Careers for Bilingual Latinos: Market Your Fluency in Spanish to get Ahead on the Job, employers are looking for people â€Å"with a broader scope of experience and strong problem-solving ability. † (1998, p. 5). The marketplace is also focusing on the global economy. Bilinguals are uniquely qualified to give the U. S. a competitive edge. The utilization of well-educated American bilinguals can give our country a significant advantage in the global marketplace. In aspect of Rudolph Giuliani’s view that bilingual education doesn’t work and that it is too expensive should be better thought out and he should look at the benefits that come from it. Giuliani was quoted regarding bilingual education by saying, â€Å"It’s cruel to them and gives them less of a chance to succeed† (Willen, 1998). Giuliani has some reason to argue that it is too expensive considering that â€Å"New York City alone spends $300 million annually on its program serving 126,000 students† (Chavez, 1995). In addition, Giuliani has a reason to argue that bilingual education it too time consuming considering the outrageous number of students who are eligible for bilingual classes. Although these are good reasons Giuliani should realize that, â€Å"half the Hispanic children in bilingual classes (New York City) are American-born. And many- if not most- speak English better than they do Spanish† (Chavez, 1995). The number one reason why these students are enrolled in these particular classes is because that New York automatically places these students in these classes by whether or not they score above the 40th percentile on a standard eyes test. These tests should not be done because it is evident that the students are learning English just maybe not as fast at other students. Giuliani’s claims are somewhat relevant but he should consider all of the benefits that come from bilingual education. Although Giuliani believes it is too expensive this should not be an issue considering that our country can benefit as a whole with multilingualism. During the Restrictive Period (1880s-1960s) the need of being able to effectively communicate in English was motivating immigrants to learn the language and assimilate into society (Ovando, 2003). Single language was meant to unify the members of a society (Schaefer, 2003, p. 66). However, today conformity to a single language would probably be regarded as â€Å"racist† (Mujica, 2003). Currently, most people would rather agree with Eliana D. Rojas, an assistant professor of bilingual education, that the right to maintain one’s native language and culture is a part of a person’s human rights (Mujica). The main reason so many people protest attempts to implement bilingual programs in public schools is a belief that such step will lead to dissolving the unity of the country. The government provides funds for translators in most government organizations which allow immigrants to function in their own language, doesn’t encourage foreigners to learn English and thus isolates them from the rest of the community. In response, they are more likely to form a small group or even a subculture within the dominant society with different norms, values and language. â€Å"We cannot assimilate and we won’t! † one day proclaimed the executive director of the League of United Latin American Citizens, an organization originally supporting pro assimilation (Mujica, 2003, p. 2). According to the Census statistics in 2000, 18 percent of American population over the age of 5 speaks a language other than English as their primary language (Schaefer, 2003, p. 65), while 8 percent of them are classified as â€Å"limited English proficient† (Mujica, 2003, p. 2). Hispanic population is the fastest growing minority in the U. S. and large parts of the country are becoming increasingly â€Å"Latinized†. Americans â€Å"feel strangers in their own neighborhoods and aliens in their own country† (Schaefer, 2003, p. 66). It may look like sooner or later we will have to say â€Å"Hasta la Vista to the ‘United’ States and Adelante to Canadian-style discord over the issues of language and ethnicity† (Mujica, 2003, p. 4). Therefore, blaming such programs as bilingual instructing in schools is based primarily on nationalistic concerns. The recent studies have proven, though, that only a small percent of children attending bilingual classrooms will still be able to communicate in their native language in a few years (Worthy, 2003). In some ESL classes students are actually encouraged to maintain their first language and are introduced to elements from both American and their native cultures. It seems apparent that a child will more likely associate himself or herself with other immigrants rather than Americans and it may seem hard for that student to assimilate into American society. It may be difficult for him or her to learn English later because any language cannot be taught successfully in isolation – proficient communicational skills can only develop through everyday practice and a practical need to apply new knowledge. In reality it takes about the same time for a person to learn English in the all-English class than gradually switching from the native language to the regular English instructing. Despite the fact they differ in the length of the transition to English and how long they allow students to remain in bilingual classrooms, all ESL students receive enough practice and even become monolingual English speakers pretty soon, as a yearlong study of fifth-grade children attending bilingual class has proven (Worthy, 2003). As the teacher encouraged students to read, write and speak Spanish, most of them were losing their ability to communicate in Spanish and had English as their dominant language both in school and informal situations. The study concludes that at a certain time social and peer pressure are more important for children than family influence, the reason why many of them started feeling uncomfortable speaking their native language with their friends (Worthy, 2003). Evidently, bilingual education is an asset to our country and the benefits can be seen throughout our global economy. People such as Giuliani should embrace the idea of this type of education and should help fund programs as it will undoubtedly further enrich our economy. In addition, why should students loose their native language simply for the reason that the majority of people speak English? The ability to speak multiple languages enables them for future aspirations, success, and priority over those who can only speak only English fluently. Our society extremely benefits from bilingual education and there no significant reason for eliminating it. All in all, bilingual education in public schools is definitely not a threat to an official language or unity of the country. Nor it is a waste of funds since it is so essential in children’s first years of education. ESL classes do not slow down assimilation, and even if in some cases American culture is so diverse that even abolishing all programs helping immigrants to maintain their language will not have a great impact on American melting pot. Instead, English-only initiatives have only negative consequences for limited-English proficient groups and their interaction with the dominant society (Barker, 2001). Abolishing bilingual education in schools will not create an intense for immigrants to learn English, but most likely will result in protests, racial conflicts, even prejudice against minority groups, and that is a certain way to dissolve a country. References August, D. , & Garcia E. E. (1988). Language minority education in the United States. Springfield, IL: Thomas. Barker, Valerie, Howard Giles, Kimberly Noels, Julie Duck, Michael Hecht, and Richarde Clement. (Mar 2001). The English-only movement: A Communication analysis of changing perceptions of language vitality. Journal of Communication,51 (1), 3. Proquest. DeVry University, Federal Way, WA. Retrieved February 3, 2006 from http:\www. il. proquest. compdauto>. Chavez, Linda. (1995, April 2). Bilingual education was to teach English, not trap students. Minneapolis Star Tribune, 23. Conklin, N. F. , & Lourie, M. A. (1983). A host of tongues: Language communities in the United States. New York: The Free Press. Fishman, J. A. , & Markman, B. R. (1979). The ethnic mother-tongue school in America: Assumptions, findings, directory. New York: Ferkauf Graduate School, Yeshiva University. Heath, S. B. (1976). A national language academy: Debate in the new nation. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 47(11), 9-43. Heath, S. B. (1981). English in our language heritage. In C. A. Ferguson & S. B. Heath (Eds. ), Language in the U. S. A. (pp. 6-20). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Johnson, G. W. (1949). Our English heritage. Philadelphia: Lippincott. Keller, G. D. , & Van K. S. Hooft. (1982). A chronology of bilingualism and bilingual education in the United States. In J. A. Fishman & G. D. Keller (Eds. ), Bilingual education for Hispanic students in the United States (pp. 3-19). New York: Teachers College, Columbia University. Kenig, Graciela. (1998). The best careers for bilingual latinos: Market your fluency in Spanish to get ahead on the job. McGraw-Hill. Kleinfeld, J. S. (1979). Eskimo school on the Andreafsky: A study of effective bicultural education. New York: Praeger. Lyons, J. J. (1990). The past and future directions of federal bilingual education policy. In C. B. Cazden & C. E. Snow (Eds. ), English plus: Issues in bilingual education (pp. 66-80). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Macswan, Jeff. (1998, August 6). Bilingual education an asset that can offer global rewards. Arizona Republic. Retrieved February 4, 2006 from www. onenation. org/0898/080698. html Met, M. , & Galloway, V. (1992). Research in foreign language curriculum. In P. Jackson (Ed. ) Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 852-890). New York: Macmillan. Mujica, Maero E. (2003, Dec). Why the US needs an official language. The World and I, 18(12), 36. Proquest. Devry University, Federal Way, WA. Retrieved February 4, 2006 from http://www. il. proquest. com/pdauto Ovando, Carlos J. (Spring 2003). Bilingual education in the United States: Historical development and current issues. Bilingual Research Journal 27(1), 1, 25. Proquest. DeVry University, Federal Way, WA. Retrieved February 4, 2006 from http:\www. il. proquest. compdauto>. Pratt, Chasity. (2000, April 4). One class, two languages: Both English, foreign benefit bilingual schools. Newsday, 6. Rojas, E. D. & Reagan, T. (Winter 2003). Linguistic human rights: A new perspective on bilingual education. Educational Foundations 17(1), 5. Proquest. DeVry University, Federal Way, WA. Retrieved February 4, 2006 from http:\www. il. proquest. compdauto Schaefer, Richard T. (2003). Sociology: A Brief introduction. McGraw Hill: New York Willen, Liz. (1998, January, 16). Bilingual debate: Rudy’s push to limit education programs draws flak. Newsday, 8. Wood, Daniel B. (1997, July 30). Next big push from California: No bilingual education. The Christian Science Monitor United States. Retrieved February 4, 2006 from http://csmweb2. emcweb. com/durable/1997/07/03/us/us. 1. html Worthy, J. , Alejandra Rodriguez-Galindo, Lori Czop Assaf, Leticia Martinez and Kimberly Cuero. (Summer 2003). Fifth-grade bilingual students and precursors to ‘subtractive

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(TiME) mission - Essay Example The TiME team proposed a mission to land on the methane surface of Saturn’s moon to explore and interact with its atmosphere. Among the goals that were set to be achieved by TiME include: carrying out for the first time a direct inspection of an extraterrestrial sea, measure and sample the organic makeup of a different planet directly and give the first ever extended in situ research of a liquid volatile cycle away from earth. The other proposal of the group was called Comet Hopper or Chopper. The proposal involved placing a Lander on the surface of comet 46P/Wirtanen to study its composition. Since it was to have thrusters it would be able to move from one part of the comet to the other. The Titan Mare Explorer Mission was to explore directly an environment that is like an ocean beyond earth. The vessel known as TiME was to both land and float on this sea of methane-ethane cloudy and complex moon. The team for this mission was lead by principal investigator Ellen Stofan of Proxemy Research Inc. While the TiME capsule was to be built by Lockheed Martin in Denver. Instruments would have been gotten from NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center, APL and Malin Space Science Systems. The technology that would have been used is one of a kind. Titan has an atmosphere that is thicker than that of the earth, this means solar power would not have been use and battery would only be sufficient for a few hours. This would have left the option of using Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator (ASRG). This would have provided power that is four times that of radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs). Before TiME there were other missions that had similar objectives such as Solar System Decadal Survey which could see its launch in 2020s if considered under the Titan-Saturn System Mission, and Titan Lake In-situ Sampling Propelled Explorer or â€Å"TALISE†. The latter is based

Robotics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Robotics - Research Paper Example Plurality of identity refers to chosen or multiple identities (Miller 2013, 2). Real identity is an aggregate of selves or identity aspects in various contexts and real identity is not subject to manipulation (Cocking 2009, 127; 135). Online identities might correspond to real identity and multiple identities are virtually possible on the same or different online platforms (Ellison 2013, 10; 14). Basically, social media enables users manipulate, diversify or distort identities for legitimate reasons such as privacy or deliberate misinformation. Cocking (2009) asserts that computer-mediated communication enables showcasing of users, entrance and contribution to interest groups and communities (123). Digital technologies have enabled modification of identity or creation of several identities (Ludovico, n.d.). Miller (2013; Ludovico, n.d.) refers to the 1993 New Yorker cartoon of a dog telling another that virtually, nobody knows it is a dog to explain virtual identities (3). The dissolution of the real life identity by technological advances results in fragmentation illustrated by multiplicity of identities and interconnections in various digital media. Private content postings results in partial representations of real life identity which is disjointed and rarely matches the original. Ludovico likens the phenomenon to opening up to strangers not likely to be met again. These online identities are unpredictable since they are constantly updated to create fictitious characters and exaggerate of real ones in identity experimentation. In pre and post web 2.0 standards, social media influenced formation of plural identities. The web 2.0 sites enable user generated content as opposed to the preexisting commercially and institutionally generated content (Vallor 2012; Pasquier 2010, 21). Vallor 2012 asserts that early use of these sites linked

Culture Wars and Teachings of the Past Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Culture Wars and Teachings of the Past - Essay Example This makes them edge when they hear other people drawing comparisons of the past and current happenings (Manning, 2003). History and all the aspects involved are not very palatable in many circles. This is pegged on the understanding that it is crucial to take time to understand the history and what it entailed. This will include digging up of past issues that will rub people in all the wrong ways. Opinionated facts about those that support standards and those that do not have taken centre stage for so many years. There is an example presented of women and many other minority groups that have risen in the historical issue. They have been linked to the formations and opinions that are currently applied in many decisions that are arrived at all over the world. Historians all over have supported this thought. This is with the realization that there is a connection between the way things are observed and what they were (McNay, 1999). This is what forms the cannons of their historical tea chings and observations. This has created the chance for them to teach history as they are expected to. This is with the mindset that as much as the past is the past, it has a relationship with the future. This is with respect to the mistakes made the successes endured and the strides that were made. This is at each and every step of the way as the general process of history was unfolding and taking centre stage. This is with respect to the raising of the historical standards or being content with aspects of multi culturalism that are being propagated and embraced (Dunn, 2000). Second Book Review- History on Trial The issue of the creation of national standards has had long standing complications. This is because every society has very many people that support and critic various ideologies. This is mostly the case in the event that they do not support the logic and opinions of the majority. Their diverse opinions, ideologies and beliefs, have created a system where it is practically impossible to relate (McNeill, 2009). The relationship that is drawn from all historical aspects ensure that it is seen the way that it is. The war is as a result of the diverse opinions that were arrived at during the formation of the national history standards project. The project had the sole aim of ensuring that historical standards were set. This was in relation to the general process of teaching and educating people in all aspects of history and all that it entailed. The historians propagate a system where they are entitled to the raised standards that will be used in many curriculums. They thought that the standards will have positive effects on the general process of teaching, analyzing and understanding history. This was arrived at because of the feelings that they had towards how history was being taught. Many historians supported this argument and the standards set (Nash, 2007). This was because it created a platform for them to ague objectively about the methodologies o f study. Historians take the study and understanding of history as a very delicate subject. They want history to be defined based on its overall aims, objectives and societal expectations. They want the platform to talk candidly about history and its effects on the way life is seen currently. This is based on the understanding that history

Oxfam Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Oxfam - Term Paper Example This paper will seek to explore the mission, role, and impact of Oxfam as an international NGO while also providing an overall critique of the organization. Oxfam as an organization was founded in 1942 in Britain. The organization was originally named as the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief at its inception. At its beginning, the group tasked itself with campaigns to send food supplies to starving children and women through an allied naval blockade in enemy occupied Greece during the 2nd world war (Brand 32). In 1995, the organization underwent a transformation to become known as Oxfam International. Oxfam International represented a group of independent NGO’s that came together to work for a greater impact on the global stage to reduce injustice and poverty. Presently, there are 17 member organizations that form the Oxfam international confederation. These member organizations are based in the United States, Belgium, Australia, France, Canada, Germany, the Netherlands, Grea t Britain, Mexico, Hong Kong, Japan, Italy, Ireland, India, Spain, New Zealand and Quebec. The organization’s secretariat is based in Oxford, United Kingdom (Oxfam). The organization also runs advocacy offices in Washington DC, New York, Brasilia, Geneva, and Brussels. The mission of Oxfam International is to work with many various local partner organizations as well as people living in poverty who strive towards exercising their human rights, asserting their dignity as full citizens and taking control of their lives.

The US position in the two Iraq wars Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 7500 words

The US position in the two Iraq wars - Essay Example It is further submitted that in order to discuss the US position in both Iraq wars it is necessary to consider the background to the relationship between America and Iraq preceding the Gulf wars. It is proposed that the fall of the Soviet Union and the changing world order in the aftermath of the cold war triggered a change in the international political framework, thereby altering the traditional theory of international relations as evidenced by Operation Desert Storm. This further marked a turning point in US foreign policy objectives in the Middle East, which was cemented by the events of September 11. To this end, Operation Iraqi Freedom is a prime example of this as a foreseeable end to the US war in Iraq remains precarious, leading to justifications of necessary humanitarian interventions and post conflict peace building. Therefore, in considering the US position in the two Iraq Wars, I shall consider the background to US foreign policy in Section 2, followed by a discussion of Operation Desert Storm in Section 3. In Section 4 I shall undertake a comparative analysis of Operation Iraqi Freedom followed by a discussion of the blurring of the distinction between military operations and legitimate peace building initiatives. In Section 6, I shall consider the Operation Iraqi Freedom in context of the increased role of private military contractors by the US, followed by a conclusion in section 7. If we consider the historical backdrop of US foreign policy, it is evident from the early 1794 the Neutrality Act, which was re-enacted and amended in 1818; that US foreign policy has roots in developing international laws of neutrality, by aiming to secure general acceptance of internal policy pronouncements â€Å"on such matters from the countries of Europe throughout the late eighteenth centuries onwards† (Boyle, 2002 at

Ergomatics Ltd- Product Launch Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Ergomatics Ltd- Product Launch - Essay Example Background Information of Ergonomics Ltd Ergonomics Ltd is a leading manufacturer of variable height furniture for the educational market. The company has strengths in the design, supply and installation of furniture for education institutions that adheres to strict government guidelines. The company has expertise in the quality and design product to meet specific need of its consumers. It supplies furniture to most of the good schools and educational institutes. The product it supplies is customized according to space need and design needs of consumers. It has been able to provide good quality products at reasonable cost. The deliveries of products are always on time. The customer focused approach; good product and service have created a brand name for Ergonomics Ltd in the market. It supplies the products directly or through the distribution network it has established in last 30 years. Its strong distribution network, good credit policies and distribution channel management have created a strong distribution network. It h as strong manufacturing base and supplier’s network that can provide them raw materials at the best prices. Being one of the leaders in the market the company has reached at the stage where it can get best prices of raw materials. It has employee focused approach. It provides best compensation, wages and working conditions to its employees. It is regarded as one of the best employers in the market. Ergonomics Ltd has a turnover of  £110,000,000 with operating profits of  £7,000,000. Company is planning to diversify in new business.

Certified General Accountant Essay Example for Free

Certified General Accountant Essay As a Certified General Accountant (CGA), ethics are a fundamental requirement. CGAs affect the welfare of their clients and also the wider stakeholder-society. It is crucial to work in accordance with the six CGA Canada Code of Ethical Principles. Fraud and negligence do occur however and they have negative implications on the professional, the client, the professional body, and society as a whole. For example, in the case of Kelley Lynch, she was trusted by her client, Leonard Cohen, to work responsibly as his business manager (Malemed). Unfortunately, her activities can be analyzed to demonstrate how she failed to act responsibly and directly violated three ethical principles. Lynch violated the ethical principle of Trust and Duties. As a professional accountant, Lynch failed to honour the trust that her client bestowed upon her and used her privileged position as business manager to cater to her own needs. For example, Lynch conspired with Richard Westin to hire him as Cohen’s tax lawyer in order to cater to her self-interest With Westin’s help, they devised a complex corporate structure as a vehicle for retirement savings. Taking advantage of her privilege to access Cohen’s finances, she stole over $50 million. Another key violation is that she failed to remain independent in mind and appearance, as she was once in a personal relationship with Cohen (Malemed). * * Lynch also violated the principle of Responsibilities to Society. She failed to uphold to responsibilities to society, which include acting with trustworthiness, integrity and objectivity. She failed to display these characteristics in her own actions and in her dealings with her colleague, Westin, while serving her client. For example, Lynch is entitled to 15% management compensation, however she broke Cohen’s trust by stealing more than $5 million of his savings, which is greater than her defined compensation amount. She failed to act with integrity and objectivity, when her client took time off from his career. She used this opportunity to receive more royalties through the scheme that Westin helped to develop (Malemed). * * Lynch also directly violated the principle of Deceptive Information. As a professional accountant, Lynch failed to not be associated with information that is false or misleading. With Westin’s help, Lynch pretended to sell Cohen’s music-publishing company and royalty for $12 million. Lynch falsely stated to Cohen that the money from the sale would go to a company owned by his children, but instead it went to a company almost owned entirely by Lynch (Malemed). * * In conclusion, Lynch failed to act responsibly with handling the finances of her client, Cohen and directly violated at least three of the six ethical principles. This is just one incident of fraud and negligence that has occurred in professional accounting bodies. Therefore, to maintain the integrity and respect of the CGA profession, it is crucial that members always act in accordance with the CGA Canada Code of Ethical Principles.

A Game of Cat and Maus Essay Example for Free

A Game of Cat and Maus Essay Maus and Maus II are both very powerful and moving graphic novels. Both of which discuss one of the worst tragedies known to mankind. Spielgelman used the graphic novel form because it came natural to him, however he probably also used it as a way to get a larger audience and to make the subject matter a little less intimidating. However, Spielgelman’s use of animals to represent the different races helps the reader better understand the situation in a somewhat entertaining and a somewhat easier way. Maus even encapsulates the adage, â€Å"a picture is worth a thousand words† to a tee. The title of the book Maus comes from the German word mauscheln. Mauscheln when translated to English means â€Å"to talk Yiddish† or â€Å"to cheat,† in terms of playing cards. The Germans laid the blame for Germany’s economic distress on the Jewish people. During this time frame, all the propaganda posters were portraying the Jewish community as mice. Maus, was a more than appropriate title considering how the Jewish were viewed and treated during this point. There are approximately eight different animals used to represent the different cultures represented in the novels. The three main animals used are mice, which represent the Jewish people; cats, which represent the German people and pigs, representing the Polish people. It seems obvious as to why the Germans and Jews were represented as they were. Germans believed they were superior to everyone else, and in the animal kingdom, the â€Å"king† is a lion, which is considered an overgrown cat. With the Germans are represented as cats, it would be more than obvious to portray the Jewish as an animal that would be the victim of a cat, a mouse. The Jewish eventually ended up having to live like mice whilst they were in hiding. The artistic portrayal allows the reader to visualize it in an easier manner than if it had been a point blank worded novel. The other main animal the reader sees representing a group of people is pigs. The Polish are represented as pigs due to the fact that, stereotypically, the Poles are considered greedy and brutal. But if one looks at it from a different perspective, they could say that the reason the Polish are represented as pigs is because of the kielbasa, the Polish delicacy. The only time that the reader actually sees any differences between the ethnicity of a â€Å"character† and their religion is in one occasion in Maus. The child of a German and a Jewish person is represented as a mouse with the cat stripes. Other than that one occasion, anytime you see an animal, it is obvious as to whether it is a Pole, a German, a Jew or an American. Aside from the Jewish representation, the other countries being represented, the animal is done as a national identity. The images in Maus offer the reader an understanding that word just would not be able to get across in the same way. For example, on page 31 of Maus, we can tell that Anja is distressed by the way the panel is angled. If this had been a worded novel, the reader would not fully be able to understand the emotions going through the mind of Anja, or even in a way, Vladek. Another example that demonstrates this is in the mini comic- â€Å"Prisoner of Planet Hell. † On page 103, after Artie was discharged from the psychiatric hospital, the reader can see how Artie is feeling suffocated by his mother. Anja is overshadowing Artie, who is curled up in the fetal position- almost as if it is re-creating the image of being in Anja’s womb. The most prominent example, one that communicates the fear of being a Jew in hiding during this period is when Anja and Valdek are traveling to a new â€Å"safe house. † The road they are walking on is depicted as a swastika. This is a perfect depiction for how dangerous it really was for a Jew to be wandering around in the open. Even later on, when they are in hiding and cannot receive food regularly, they eat like mice and live like mice. With the novels being depicted with animals, it allows the reader to understand the mindset of a German Nazi. Yes, people learn about World War II in history but they do not actually seem to care. They take the class and do the minimum it takes to pass. People who were born farther away from the aftermath period of WWII do not seem to really understand the emotional damage from the Holocaust events. Valdek even says that â€Å"nobody can understand. † The Holocaust is extremely hard to comprehend unless one had been there. Anyone could read Diary of Anne Frank or Night, but what do they really take away from it? The Germans held hatred toward anyone they deemed ‘inhuman. ’ Let it have been the Jews, the Poles or the Slavs; the Germans depicted them in the propaganda posters that would turn others against them. In the end, using animals and the graphic novel to depict the events was probably one of the smartest things to do. It gives a first hand, one sided account that allows the reader to see the truth. Truth that has not been tainted by the media, truth shows real pain from a survivor. Maus really encapsulates the truth of the Holocaust. It shows how brutal humanity can be. It also demonstrates how weak minded some people can be, going against what they may think is morally wrong in order to keep themselves and their families safe. When someone writes a novel in graphic form, it makes the subject more approachable. However, when an author uses animals as the characters it brings a whole new dimension to a book. It allows to reader to view the subject manner in a whole new way.

Barriers to Implementing an E-Learning System

Barriers to Implementing an E-Learning System General Introduction/Background In todays world of globalization, knowledge and learning is considered the most vital element for acquiring competitive advantage (Longworth and Davies, 1996). For gaining competitive advantage firms and institutions are becoming more knowledge intensive, therefore they concentrate more on managing and sharing knowledge to gain significant advantage of this knowledge (Hertog and Sluijs, 1995).Traditional education style has remained consistent without any changes been made to the system. This has enabled a large number of creative thinkers to ponder other possible educational approaches that could benefit the system (GÃÆ'Â ¼nes, 2008). On the other hand, technology is necessary in order to conquer, but it is also a necessity to remain in competition. All the sectors, whether it is primary, manufacturing or tertiary, all of them have been forced to accept technology to become innovative and efficient (GÃÆ'Â ¼nes, 2008). Technology has not only radically changed the ways and methods of our works but is now beginning to transform the education system (Webster and Murphy, 2008).With the use of internet technologies, firms and institutions have outstanding opportunities to deliver education and different training techniques through strategic use of internet technologies (Lee, 2006; Kaohsiung; Taiwan, 2006). The use of Internet technologies combined with suitable learning strategies assists to provide an open, flexible and dynamic learning environment. As a result many corporations, government agencies and academic institutions worldwide have increased the use of internet and educational technologies to deliver instructions and provide training. This innovative approach of delivering information and education is known as E-learning (Khan, 2008). E-learning can be simply defined as the way of learning which delivers its contents through World Wide Web (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). Sharifabadi defined E-lear ning as the term used to describe teaching and learning resources or experiences that is, in some way, delivered electronically. (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Sharifabadi, 2006, p.391). E-learning is a way of interaction through electronic mediums, mainly computers, by using videos, photos, texts and sounds for different educational purposes (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). E-learning system creates a learning opportunity for the convenience of those who do not have the opportunity to be physically available, due to various reasons (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Werry, 2002). Hence, during the late 1990s and early 2000 many online universities were established and more universities were offering online courses, but mixed results of the E-learning systems were encountered (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). Different researches have pointed out many barriers in E-learnings implementation, which lead to its failure. For example technological infrastructure, course content quality, financial support, learners computing skills, staff training, management support and organizations culture resistance (Romiszowski, 2003, Childs et al, 2005, Muilenburg and Berge, 2005). Organizations cultural resistance is considered as the most influential barrier in E-learnings implementation process. The cultures resistance or resistance from the potential users negatively affects the implementation process. Unwillingness of the employees can create major problems for the managers and can lead to the system failure (Shields and Young, 1989, p. 22). Employees resistance and avoiding of the use of required procedures and rules could lead the system to failure even if it has been developed perfectly and is ready to use (Malmi, 1997, p. 475). In this instant the managers cannot gain full benefits of the new system unless they can create a change in the employees attitude (Yates, 1997, p. 164). Cultural differences among peers could create many problems in implementation of E-learning system. Therefore, if the cultural issues are overlooked during implementation, their ignorance could act as a vital barrier in E-learnings success (AL-Hunaiyyan et al, 2008; Gujar and S onone, 2004). Problem statement There are different articles and books available in the market which mentioned about the usefulness and advantages of E-learning. Web-based learning is a new medium of information technology; researchers have mentioned many different factors which act as barriers towards implementing E-learning system (Ngai et al., 2007). There are different factors cited by various authors which exist in their research papers that can help us to identify critical barriers. In addition, we are interested in finding out, to which extent an organization is dependent on the role of its culture, and how culture can lead to success or failure of the E-learning system. It should be noted that culture has a great impact in organizations and are important when decision making is involved in IT management. In this regard, an organization is said to be confronted with stiff resistance, consequently making IT management a difficult task (Childs et al, 2005). To overcome the barriers for implementing E- learning , an organization should try and manage these barriers accordingly because they are critical to any organizations general business model and can equally affect the organizations decision making process. Research question What are the critical barriers of implementing E-learning system and what is the role of organizational culture in successful implementation of E-learning system? Objectives and Purpose of the Research The purpose of this research is to describe and analyze the critical factors which may affect the implementation of E-learning system. Investigating the barriers of implementing E-learning system would help to lower down the barriers in future implementation. Moreover by examining the cultural influence of an organization towards E-learning systems implementation process, it will be easier to identify a complete outline for organizations to implement E-Learning system and to make the system work efficiently and successfully. Thesis design The structure of the thesis is principally focused on six chapters which include Chapter 1: Introduction/Background The Introduction gives brief overview of the research topic, including the purpose and objectives, problems and research question. Chapter 2: Research Design/Methods This chapter deals with the choice of topic, research process which indicates how these datas will be analyzed, data collection, validity and reliability, and method critique. Chapter 3: Framework of reference This chapter discusses relevant theories to give the reader an understanding of the barriers which come across E-learning systems implementation processes cited by different authors. Chapter 4: Findings This chapter provides frequencies of different barriers for implementing E-learning system described by different authors. Chapter 5 Analysis This chapter will describe the analysis based on the findings. Chapter 6: Conclusions This section finally concludes the lessons drawn from the findings Research Design/Methods This chapter deals with the choice of topic, research process which indicates how these datas will be analyzed, data collection, validity and reliability, and method critique. Choice of Topic Fisher (2007, p.31-33) suggested that authors should choose research area according to their interests, so they remain motivated and committed to complete the project. The authors belong to Pakistan, where E-learning system is not much in practiced in organizations. While, E-learning system is already in use in Sweden, we found out that E-learning system is a proficient tool in learning process. Therefore, it was quite intriguing for us to explore this topic. In addition, we were interested in finding out the barriers for implementation of E-learning system and to investigate the role of organizations culture for successful implementation of E-learning system. Fisher (2007, p.31-33) urges that chosen topic should be accessible and it is necessary to make sure that quite literature is available for making detail analysis. We are certain that our topic is enough interesting, significant and demanding for all researchers, businesses managers and Information Technology Management student s. Research Process There are various methodological approaches to carry out research i.e. Realist research, exploratory research, critical realism, standpoint research, action research and phenomenology etc, Fisher (2007, p.15). In addition, Fisher (2007, p.153-155) mentioned two kinds of discoveries e.g. Explorers and Surveyors. A kind of research where an open approach is used with conceptual framework but the authors are not sure about outcomes and results of the work they do, is called exploratory research. On the other hand surveyors discovery approach is pre-structured where surveyors are already inform of the results and out come of their work. According to these concepts our research is exploratory as we are dependent on secondary data. Data Collection and source Fisher (2007, p.45) states that data could be collected from existing databases, through questionnaires, conducting fieldwork or performing case studies as it depends on the kind of research. In this research entire data has been collected from available databases as the research is entirely based on secondary data collection method. Secondary source has been used in this research. The data was extracted from articles, books and websites, magazines, journals and articles with focus on critical barriers to E-learning implementation. Fisher stated that (2007, P.158-161) data could be qualitative or quantitative depending on the method of research study. A quantitative approach has been used here in this research. No statistics has been used in this research and as all research has been analyzed by words not figures. Access of information Secondary data has extracted from different sources. The required literature has been acquired by searching MÃÆ'Â ¤lardalen Universitys library. Furthermore, we have used online library (ebrary) as well as other librarys database such as Elin, Emerald, Eric and EBSCO for articles and journals, which have helped us to answer our research query. Going through a wide-ranging literature review, twenty five articles were identified that give answer to the research question from distinct angles. To identify the barriers to Implementation of E-learning system, keyword search criteria based on title contained; ÃÆ'ËÅ" Barriers of E-learning system implementation, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Implications of E-learning system in organizations, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Implementation of E-learning system in large organization, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Challenges of E-learning Implementation, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Limitations of E-learning System, To describe and analyze the role of organizations culture for successful implementation of E-learning system in organization, keyword search criteria contained; ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cultural issues of E-leaning system, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cultural Influence on online Learning, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cultural influence on student learning, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Analyzing cultural Influences on E-learning Transactional Issue, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cultural difference and influence on E-learning, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Social and cultural impact on E-learning Effectiveness, ÃÆ'ËÅ" A cultural Analysis of relearning for developed and developing countries, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cross and Multicultural issues for E-learning success, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Influence of organizational cultural in E-learning, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Organizational resistance towards implementing E-learning system. Data Analysis According to Miles and Huberman (1994, p.10) data analysis consists of three parallel flows of activity: (1) Data reduction, (2) Data display, and (3) Conclusion drawing/verification. Furthermore they suggested that data analysis components could be successfully integrated during data analysis, as it is an iterative and continuous process (Miles and Huberman 1994). They have stated three components of activities that describe analysis which are; First is data reduction that is focused on selection, simplification and transformation of data (Miles and Huberman 1994). This process is applied in qualitative data. The objective of this is data is to help drawing final conclusion and verification. In this study data is taken from the studies where authors cited barriers to implement E-learning with focus on cultural resistance in an organization. Second is data display i.e. data reduced in data reduction needs to be organized that help to draw conclusion easily. In table mentioned below, different factors related to critical barriers to implementation of E-learning system and the role of organizations culture is given below along with the frequency of each factor. Third is the conclusion based on drawing/verifying; describes the possible explanations, causal flows and propositions to be made. Therefore based on the findings and discussed analysis, conclusions would be drawn to signify the influential role of organizations culture towards the implementation process. Validity and Reliability Validity is defined as the degree which researchers have measured what they have set out to measure (Kumar, 2005) whereas reliability means the extent to which another researcher can reach the same conclusion by following the same research process (Taylor et al., 2006). Several articles have been used to identify the barriers of implementing E-learning system and to analyze the role of organizational culture. Besides, frequencies of more influential barriers have been generated to validate the barriers and cultural role in implementation process. Method Critique Due to the time limitation, a limited number of articles have been used to formulate the frequency to identify the critical barriers. It could be better to use more articles to strengthen our research as a number of studies have already been done in this area. However this study will describe and analyze the critical barriers for the implementation of E-learning system related literature and to gain a theoretical background. It was also discovered during analysis of this study that most of the authors mentioned the critical factors with mere repetition with diverse definitions. Framework of Reference This chapter discusses relevant theories to give the reader an understanding of the barriers which come across E-learning systems implementation processes cited by different authors. E-learning What is E-learning? E-learning can be defined as learning and communication exercises across computers and networks or electronic sources. (Wong, 2007 ; Schank, 2002; Roffe, 2002 Tsai Machado, 2002; Sambrook, 2003; Fry; Wild, Grggs and Downing, 2002) have defined E-learning as delivery of training and education via networked interactivity and distribution technologies.According to Khan (2008), the word E-learning is used for an open, flexible, and diverse E-learning environment. E-learning can be analyzed as an inventive approach for delivering learner-centered, well designed, interactive, and facilitated learning environment to anyplace, anyone, anytime by utilizing the features and resources of different digital technologies along with other forms of learning materials suited for open, distributed, and flexible learning environment (Khan, 2008). In E-learning system Students are able to interact anytime from anywhere with different instructional material (text, sound, pictures, video and so on) through Internet. Furthermore, learners can even communicate with teachers and classmates both individually and as a group discussion with the use of message boards, instant message exchanges and video conferencing. (Al-Ammari and Hamad, 2008; Andersson, 2009; Zhang and Zhou, 2003). (Lee, 2006) Therefore, E-learning has been defined variously, learning system using different carrying technologies and techniques like Computer Based Training (CBT), Internet-based training (IBT), Web-based instruction (WBI), distributed learning (DL), advanced distributed learning (ADL), distance learning, online learning (OL), mobile learning (or m-learning) or remote learning and learning management systems (LMS) (Khan, 2008). For managing learning environment like, registration of learners, scheduling learning resources, controlling and guidance of learning processes and analyzing learners performance are all accomplish in Learning Management System (LMS) (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Brown, 2006). In 1970s and 1980s distance learning started becoming popular and sued to conduct through postal mail but in 1990s the rise of World Wide Web changed the nature distance learning. With the use of this technology learners can get a number of resources from their teachers like discussion forums, multimedia, chat, video conferencing and electronic black boards. These changes which have been brought in distance education are an attempt to provide easier access to students who live very far from universities, who are working or have other reasons for not being able to attend in person. In the US in the academic year 2001-2, five million people took at least one course online, and three million were enrolled in online degree programs (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Kazmer Haythornthwaite, 2005, p.7). It can be seen in these figures that distance education online has become a popular alternative to face-to-face instruction. Implementation of E-learning One of the following three approaches is necessary for the implementation of the E-learning system: To strengthen the traditional face-to-face courses with support of new communication technology, enhancement of experience with in traditional courses by integration of online activities and delivery of entirely online courses. In this implementation the readiness of some influential factors like budgeting, infrastructure planning, human resource development (experience, skills, knowledge and attitude of the end users) are most common. Uhomoibhi (2006) stated that E-learning initiators, institutions must use and prepare strategies for adoption, diffusion and implementation. For a successful implementation of online environment where learners can actively learn and get support from well-organized approach is mandatory. Processes of planning, designing, development and evaluation are all parts of a successful implementation that could help to lower down the barriers of implementation (Uhomoibhi, 2006). An E-learning system can only be successful if it is significant to all stakeholders e.g. instructors, learners; support services staff and the institutions itself. In order for learners to become quickly accustomed to E-learning, it must be made sure that it is easily accessible, efficient, well designed course, affordable, and has a facilitated learning environment. Instructors must feel a sense of accomplishment when learners meet the goals and objectives of the course in a successful way. Technical support staff should feel happy when learners receive reliable services without interruptions. One of the most important factors for institutions is the profit they earn as well as the satisfaction of the learner and a low rate of dropouts (Khan, 2005). A strong foundation is required in order to have an effective implementation of E-learning. Aligning and communication are two important factors in implementation of E-learning system. It is necessary to make sure the communication is in order. Involvement of key stakeholders at the decision making stage or any other early process is very important(Khan, 2005). Communication is also important for those who are directly responsible for the implementation; and professionals also suggest a horizontal leadership style so that everyone is responsible for their actions. This includes individuals who are critical to the implementations success which include line, functional and divisional leaders. There should be consistent scheduled meetings with these individuals to discuss the newly arising issues in the project to come up with a solution (Khan, 2005). Most of the pitfalls of E-learning are tied to technological issues so it is important to involve IT leadership throughout the project to mitigate the problems in implementation process. Creation of helpdesk for reporting of IT related issues is more important. While selecting the vendors it is important to make sure that the vendors have an outstanding and proven record. Strong communication and feedback from vendors is a necessary step for a successful implementation (Khan, 2005). An overview of the critical issues in E-learning implementation Worldwide, E-learning arises as a new paradigm of advance education with a growing rate of 36.5 percent in the market, but still failures exist (Sun et al., 2008). As many companies are moving very fast to the adoption of E-learning in order to reap its benefits but they are facing significant barriers in its implementation and adoption, which leads them to implementation failure (Mungania, 2003). Hence, to mitigate this failure we have to investigate key factors that encompass different dimensions of an open, flexible and advanced distributed learning environment for diverse learners (Khan, 2005). Literature has mentioned a wide range of factors that can influence the successful implementation of E-learning e.g. some talks about pedagogical issues, faculty issues and organizational issues while some may have discussed about personal issues, cultural issues and some other issues. A broad range of factors that can influence the success of E-learning environments has been mentioned in the literature. However, there is no organized work to characterize collective group of most influential issues or factors, which could be seen as barriers Wong (2007). Distinct authors consider different barriers as most influential in implementation of E-learning Wong (2007). Wong (2007) has categorized E-learning limitations in three main areas; technological limitations, personal issues and other limitations. The lack of hardware, limited Internet coverage and low bandwidth are all consider as technological barriers in implementation of E- learning (Hiltz, 1997; Kathawala, Abdou, Elmulti, 2002; Wong, 2007). Kember et al., 2001; Dearnley, 2003) stated that personal issues are mostly related to learners and teachers. Teachers should give a complete guidance to the learners about this new and non-traditional system to prepare new learners psychologically (Wong, 2007 ; Kember et al., 2001; Dearnley, 2003). For learners the use of new technologies could be a disadvantage or barrier in E- learning. So the lack information, communication and technological skills might be barriers to E-learning because learners could get frustrated from this unconventional learning environment. (Wong, 2007 ; Carr, 1999; Hamid, 2002; Angelina, 2002a, p.12) The freedom provided by E-learning could be a disadvantage for the learners as internal motivation and self discipline is required at its maximum which learners may find hard to achieve in order to complete their studies or assignments in time. As (Wong, 2007 ; Kearsley, 2000) Schott et al., 2003; Rivera and Rice, 2002; Abouchedid and Eid, 2004).In E-learning environment students are usually supposed to communicate in a text based environment so learners poor writing ÂÂ ¨skills might be a disadvantage in E- learning. Therefore, the inability of communicating efficiently of learners could create misunderstandings (Wong, 2007; Smith Rupp, 2004). Others limitations: E-learning provides 247 access. This infinite work might be a disadvantage for learners and particularly for teachers. This unlimited work could over stress teachers, resulting in a low quality services from instructors. (Abdou Elmulti, 2002;. Dringus, 2003; Newton, 2003; Kathawala, Schifter, 2004).Poor course design could appear a major barrier in implementation of E-learning as it could frustrate the learners and teachers. (Young and Bal, 2003; Smulders, 2003; Howell, Williams Lindsay 2003; Gordon, Young Bal, 2003; Svensson, 2004; Ivergard Hunt, 2005 ;). Cronje (2009) sees some influential barriers such as student barriers are related to lack of financial support from their families and cooperation among peers and from teachers (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997). Faculty barriers the lack of funds is the most important one. Institutes attitude towards the lecturers that some time seems less prominent among their peers is considered another important barrier in successful E-learning (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997). Organizational barriers poor funding for three major costs areas are considered more crucial barriers e.g. Initial costs of the implementation process, maintenance and up gradation. Course barriers course design is regarded as most important one. Poor course design is one of reasons of inferiority of Distance learning. Conversion of teaching context in to electronic shape could not add any value to E-learning (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997) Boondao et al. (2008) mentioned, It is not possible, in the view of some scholars, to create a model of the good teacher without taking issues of culture and context into account. The influence of culture cannot be ignored in successful implementation of E-learning. Considering learners from different culture e.g. east and west, learners from both cultures have particular approaches and styles of learning. Therefore, lack of consideration of cultural issues during designing could prove as a barrier in successful implementation of E-learning (Boondao et al, 2008). Discussing the different critical barriers Nowadays an escalating amount of companies are implementing E-learning System (Mungania, 2003). But as these companies try to take advantages of E-learning to gain strategic and competitive advantages in absolute urgency, there are significant number of barriers to the implementation of E-learning come across to halt them (Simmons, 2002, p.19 and Mungania, (2003). As E-learning barriers are diverse and can be classified as personal, organizational, situational, instructional and technological. (Mungania, 2003) Moreover Khans E-learning framework provides details on critical issues which may come across E-learning implementation process. Khans E-learning framework composed of eight dimensions: institutional, management, pedagogical, technological, interface design, ethical, evaluation, and resource support. Institutional Issues Institutions need to build a complete plan for the successful implementation of E learning system (Khan 2005, p.23). Moreover Childs et al (2005) stated that institution should focus on cultural aspects for the implementation process of E learning system which have a significant effect upon the success of E-learning process (Cronje, 2009).E-learning needs to be integrated to all departments of the institution therefore a strong commitment is needed from the institution and the trainers Childs et al (2005). Moreover, E-learning implementation plan must be fully aligned with the institutions ambitions and strategic plans (Galusha, 1997; Belanger and Jordan, 2000). Therefore E-learning implementation process is paradigm shift for the institution as a whole which includes learners, instructors, administrators, technical and other support services staff (Romiszowski, 2004). To support institutions in strategic planning, change management and process development which are necessary to highlight their embedding process and issues which may occur in their organization (Childs et al (2005) and Khan 2005,p.23). Khan has divided institution issue into three parts administrative affairs, academic affairs and student services (Khan 2005, p. 24). Administrative affairs which includes organization and change (implementation of E-learning system), budgeting and return on investment, course information catalog, financial aid, course schedule, tuition fees, registration and payment, information technology services, instructional design, whereas academic affairs issues such as policies, instructional quality, faculty and staff support, intellectual property rights and so on (Khan 2005, p. 24 ). Moreover Student services deals with student support services for E-learning effectiveness. Management issues Magalhaes (2008) stated that lack of management support is number one barrier towards successful implementation of E-learning system in institution. Management issues of E-learning in organization refers to various phases of administration such as scheduling, design, construction, assessment, delivery, and maintenance (Romiszowski 2003 and Parkham et al, 2004). Managing issues in organizations depend upon various elements including content delivery, and technology Trentin (2003). Khan (2005) also stated that for the success of E learning system institution must focus on three key areas people, process, and products involved in E-learning projects which depends upon integrated team approach (Jung, 2003).Critical management factors categorized by Khan (2005) are mentioned below: Technological Issues Technological limitations are among the major barriers for the success of E-learning system (Wong, 2007).Technological limitations of E-learning system relates to computer hardware, software and relevant resources (Wong, 2007).Connectivity problems, lack of training, navigation issues, limitations of 24/7 technical support, loss of data and incapability to save or transfer data are the most common technological limitations (Mungania, 2003). Usually small and medium enterprises fail to implement E-learning system due to lack of support in hardware and software (Sambrook, 2003;Wong, 2007).The technological issues can be divided into three parts infrastructure planning, hardware, and software (Kearsley, 2000; Rumble, 2000). Success of E learming system in organizations depends upon infrastructure planning which includes a well documented strategy, focusing on infrastructure. (McGraw, 2001; Romiszowski, 2004).As E-learning environment depends on digital infrastructure, there for institutions should have consistent and well-organized networks to support E-learning (khan 2005, p.154). Moreover institutions should develop policies and guidelines to cater various issues of hardware, software, and networks as institutions involved in implementation of E-learning may suffer. (Wong, 2007, Romiszowski, 2004) Learners require basic hardware for E-learning such as desktop or notebook computers and printers (Kathawala, Abdou, Elmulti, 2002;Hiltz, 1997, Wong, 2007). Therefore, one of the major technological limitations of E-learning is the availability of computer hardware (wong,2007). Major hardware limitations of E-learning system is the necessity of relevant resources which includes servers, modems, microphones, wireless devices, printers, scanners, computers, networking devices, cameras storage devices and other equipments. (Wong, 2007, Khan 2005, p.159) Institution experience similar problems such as software costs as well as software support cost, particularly for software licenses which acts as a significant barrier (khan 2005, p.159). Software includes word processors, databases, e-mail, presentation programs, reader software, browsers and plug-ins, spreadsheets, learning management systems (LMS), authoring tools and enterprise software and so on (LytasPauloudi,2001 and Khan 2005, p.159-160) Pedagogical Issues Success of E-learning systems implementation depends on the adherence to underlay pedagogical principles that are entrenched in the E-learning (Uhomoibhi, 2006). Pedagogical issues in E-learning are major challenges in distance education therefore a strong need of resources for development of the course material arises Barriers to Implementing an E-Learning System Barriers to Implementing an E-Learning System General Introduction/Background In todays world of globalization, knowledge and learning is considered the most vital element for acquiring competitive advantage (Longworth and Davies, 1996). For gaining competitive advantage firms and institutions are becoming more knowledge intensive, therefore they concentrate more on managing and sharing knowledge to gain significant advantage of this knowledge (Hertog and Sluijs, 1995).Traditional education style has remained consistent without any changes been made to the system. This has enabled a large number of creative thinkers to ponder other possible educational approaches that could benefit the system (GÃÆ'Â ¼nes, 2008). On the other hand, technology is necessary in order to conquer, but it is also a necessity to remain in competition. All the sectors, whether it is primary, manufacturing or tertiary, all of them have been forced to accept technology to become innovative and efficient (GÃÆ'Â ¼nes, 2008). Technology has not only radically changed the ways and methods of our works but is now beginning to transform the education system (Webster and Murphy, 2008).With the use of internet technologies, firms and institutions have outstanding opportunities to deliver education and different training techniques through strategic use of internet technologies (Lee, 2006; Kaohsiung; Taiwan, 2006). The use of Internet technologies combined with suitable learning strategies assists to provide an open, flexible and dynamic learning environment. As a result many corporations, government agencies and academic institutions worldwide have increased the use of internet and educational technologies to deliver instructions and provide training. This innovative approach of delivering information and education is known as E-learning (Khan, 2008). E-learning can be simply defined as the way of learning which delivers its contents through World Wide Web (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). Sharifabadi defined E-lear ning as the term used to describe teaching and learning resources or experiences that is, in some way, delivered electronically. (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Sharifabadi, 2006, p.391). E-learning is a way of interaction through electronic mediums, mainly computers, by using videos, photos, texts and sounds for different educational purposes (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). E-learning system creates a learning opportunity for the convenience of those who do not have the opportunity to be physically available, due to various reasons (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Werry, 2002). Hence, during the late 1990s and early 2000 many online universities were established and more universities were offering online courses, but mixed results of the E-learning systems were encountered (Gulatee and Combes, 2007). Different researches have pointed out many barriers in E-learnings implementation, which lead to its failure. For example technological infrastructure, course content quality, financial support, learners computing skills, staff training, management support and organizations culture resistance (Romiszowski, 2003, Childs et al, 2005, Muilenburg and Berge, 2005). Organizations cultural resistance is considered as the most influential barrier in E-learnings implementation process. The cultures resistance or resistance from the potential users negatively affects the implementation process. Unwillingness of the employees can create major problems for the managers and can lead to the system failure (Shields and Young, 1989, p. 22). Employees resistance and avoiding of the use of required procedures and rules could lead the system to failure even if it has been developed perfectly and is ready to use (Malmi, 1997, p. 475). In this instant the managers cannot gain full benefits of the new system unless they can create a change in the employees attitude (Yates, 1997, p. 164). Cultural differences among peers could create many problems in implementation of E-learning system. Therefore, if the cultural issues are overlooked during implementation, their ignorance could act as a vital barrier in E-learnings success (AL-Hunaiyyan et al, 2008; Gujar and S onone, 2004). Problem statement There are different articles and books available in the market which mentioned about the usefulness and advantages of E-learning. Web-based learning is a new medium of information technology; researchers have mentioned many different factors which act as barriers towards implementing E-learning system (Ngai et al., 2007). There are different factors cited by various authors which exist in their research papers that can help us to identify critical barriers. In addition, we are interested in finding out, to which extent an organization is dependent on the role of its culture, and how culture can lead to success or failure of the E-learning system. It should be noted that culture has a great impact in organizations and are important when decision making is involved in IT management. In this regard, an organization is said to be confronted with stiff resistance, consequently making IT management a difficult task (Childs et al, 2005). To overcome the barriers for implementing E- learning , an organization should try and manage these barriers accordingly because they are critical to any organizations general business model and can equally affect the organizations decision making process. Research question What are the critical barriers of implementing E-learning system and what is the role of organizational culture in successful implementation of E-learning system? Objectives and Purpose of the Research The purpose of this research is to describe and analyze the critical factors which may affect the implementation of E-learning system. Investigating the barriers of implementing E-learning system would help to lower down the barriers in future implementation. Moreover by examining the cultural influence of an organization towards E-learning systems implementation process, it will be easier to identify a complete outline for organizations to implement E-Learning system and to make the system work efficiently and successfully. Thesis design The structure of the thesis is principally focused on six chapters which include Chapter 1: Introduction/Background The Introduction gives brief overview of the research topic, including the purpose and objectives, problems and research question. Chapter 2: Research Design/Methods This chapter deals with the choice of topic, research process which indicates how these datas will be analyzed, data collection, validity and reliability, and method critique. Chapter 3: Framework of reference This chapter discusses relevant theories to give the reader an understanding of the barriers which come across E-learning systems implementation processes cited by different authors. Chapter 4: Findings This chapter provides frequencies of different barriers for implementing E-learning system described by different authors. Chapter 5 Analysis This chapter will describe the analysis based on the findings. Chapter 6: Conclusions This section finally concludes the lessons drawn from the findings Research Design/Methods This chapter deals with the choice of topic, research process which indicates how these datas will be analyzed, data collection, validity and reliability, and method critique. Choice of Topic Fisher (2007, p.31-33) suggested that authors should choose research area according to their interests, so they remain motivated and committed to complete the project. The authors belong to Pakistan, where E-learning system is not much in practiced in organizations. While, E-learning system is already in use in Sweden, we found out that E-learning system is a proficient tool in learning process. Therefore, it was quite intriguing for us to explore this topic. In addition, we were interested in finding out the barriers for implementation of E-learning system and to investigate the role of organizations culture for successful implementation of E-learning system. Fisher (2007, p.31-33) urges that chosen topic should be accessible and it is necessary to make sure that quite literature is available for making detail analysis. We are certain that our topic is enough interesting, significant and demanding for all researchers, businesses managers and Information Technology Management student s. Research Process There are various methodological approaches to carry out research i.e. Realist research, exploratory research, critical realism, standpoint research, action research and phenomenology etc, Fisher (2007, p.15). In addition, Fisher (2007, p.153-155) mentioned two kinds of discoveries e.g. Explorers and Surveyors. A kind of research where an open approach is used with conceptual framework but the authors are not sure about outcomes and results of the work they do, is called exploratory research. On the other hand surveyors discovery approach is pre-structured where surveyors are already inform of the results and out come of their work. According to these concepts our research is exploratory as we are dependent on secondary data. Data Collection and source Fisher (2007, p.45) states that data could be collected from existing databases, through questionnaires, conducting fieldwork or performing case studies as it depends on the kind of research. In this research entire data has been collected from available databases as the research is entirely based on secondary data collection method. Secondary source has been used in this research. The data was extracted from articles, books and websites, magazines, journals and articles with focus on critical barriers to E-learning implementation. Fisher stated that (2007, P.158-161) data could be qualitative or quantitative depending on the method of research study. A quantitative approach has been used here in this research. No statistics has been used in this research and as all research has been analyzed by words not figures. Access of information Secondary data has extracted from different sources. The required literature has been acquired by searching MÃÆ'Â ¤lardalen Universitys library. Furthermore, we have used online library (ebrary) as well as other librarys database such as Elin, Emerald, Eric and EBSCO for articles and journals, which have helped us to answer our research query. Going through a wide-ranging literature review, twenty five articles were identified that give answer to the research question from distinct angles. To identify the barriers to Implementation of E-learning system, keyword search criteria based on title contained; ÃÆ'ËÅ" Barriers of E-learning system implementation, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Implications of E-learning system in organizations, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Implementation of E-learning system in large organization, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Challenges of E-learning Implementation, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Limitations of E-learning System, To describe and analyze the role of organizations culture for successful implementation of E-learning system in organization, keyword search criteria contained; ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cultural issues of E-leaning system, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cultural Influence on online Learning, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cultural influence on student learning, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Analyzing cultural Influences on E-learning Transactional Issue, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cultural difference and influence on E-learning, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Social and cultural impact on E-learning Effectiveness, ÃÆ'ËÅ" A cultural Analysis of relearning for developed and developing countries, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Cross and Multicultural issues for E-learning success, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Influence of organizational cultural in E-learning, ÃÆ'ËÅ" Organizational resistance towards implementing E-learning system. Data Analysis According to Miles and Huberman (1994, p.10) data analysis consists of three parallel flows of activity: (1) Data reduction, (2) Data display, and (3) Conclusion drawing/verification. Furthermore they suggested that data analysis components could be successfully integrated during data analysis, as it is an iterative and continuous process (Miles and Huberman 1994). They have stated three components of activities that describe analysis which are; First is data reduction that is focused on selection, simplification and transformation of data (Miles and Huberman 1994). This process is applied in qualitative data. The objective of this is data is to help drawing final conclusion and verification. In this study data is taken from the studies where authors cited barriers to implement E-learning with focus on cultural resistance in an organization. Second is data display i.e. data reduced in data reduction needs to be organized that help to draw conclusion easily. In table mentioned below, different factors related to critical barriers to implementation of E-learning system and the role of organizations culture is given below along with the frequency of each factor. Third is the conclusion based on drawing/verifying; describes the possible explanations, causal flows and propositions to be made. Therefore based on the findings and discussed analysis, conclusions would be drawn to signify the influential role of organizations culture towards the implementation process. Validity and Reliability Validity is defined as the degree which researchers have measured what they have set out to measure (Kumar, 2005) whereas reliability means the extent to which another researcher can reach the same conclusion by following the same research process (Taylor et al., 2006). Several articles have been used to identify the barriers of implementing E-learning system and to analyze the role of organizational culture. Besides, frequencies of more influential barriers have been generated to validate the barriers and cultural role in implementation process. Method Critique Due to the time limitation, a limited number of articles have been used to formulate the frequency to identify the critical barriers. It could be better to use more articles to strengthen our research as a number of studies have already been done in this area. However this study will describe and analyze the critical barriers for the implementation of E-learning system related literature and to gain a theoretical background. It was also discovered during analysis of this study that most of the authors mentioned the critical factors with mere repetition with diverse definitions. Framework of Reference This chapter discusses relevant theories to give the reader an understanding of the barriers which come across E-learning systems implementation processes cited by different authors. E-learning What is E-learning? E-learning can be defined as learning and communication exercises across computers and networks or electronic sources. (Wong, 2007 ; Schank, 2002; Roffe, 2002 Tsai Machado, 2002; Sambrook, 2003; Fry; Wild, Grggs and Downing, 2002) have defined E-learning as delivery of training and education via networked interactivity and distribution technologies.According to Khan (2008), the word E-learning is used for an open, flexible, and diverse E-learning environment. E-learning can be analyzed as an inventive approach for delivering learner-centered, well designed, interactive, and facilitated learning environment to anyplace, anyone, anytime by utilizing the features and resources of different digital technologies along with other forms of learning materials suited for open, distributed, and flexible learning environment (Khan, 2008). In E-learning system Students are able to interact anytime from anywhere with different instructional material (text, sound, pictures, video and so on) through Internet. Furthermore, learners can even communicate with teachers and classmates both individually and as a group discussion with the use of message boards, instant message exchanges and video conferencing. (Al-Ammari and Hamad, 2008; Andersson, 2009; Zhang and Zhou, 2003). (Lee, 2006) Therefore, E-learning has been defined variously, learning system using different carrying technologies and techniques like Computer Based Training (CBT), Internet-based training (IBT), Web-based instruction (WBI), distributed learning (DL), advanced distributed learning (ADL), distance learning, online learning (OL), mobile learning (or m-learning) or remote learning and learning management systems (LMS) (Khan, 2008). For managing learning environment like, registration of learners, scheduling learning resources, controlling and guidance of learning processes and analyzing learners performance are all accomplish in Learning Management System (LMS) (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Brown, 2006). In 1970s and 1980s distance learning started becoming popular and sued to conduct through postal mail but in 1990s the rise of World Wide Web changed the nature distance learning. With the use of this technology learners can get a number of resources from their teachers like discussion forums, multimedia, chat, video conferencing and electronic black boards. These changes which have been brought in distance education are an attempt to provide easier access to students who live very far from universities, who are working or have other reasons for not being able to attend in person. In the US in the academic year 2001-2, five million people took at least one course online, and three million were enrolled in online degree programs (Gulatee and Combes, 2007; Kazmer Haythornthwaite, 2005, p.7). It can be seen in these figures that distance education online has become a popular alternative to face-to-face instruction. Implementation of E-learning One of the following three approaches is necessary for the implementation of the E-learning system: To strengthen the traditional face-to-face courses with support of new communication technology, enhancement of experience with in traditional courses by integration of online activities and delivery of entirely online courses. In this implementation the readiness of some influential factors like budgeting, infrastructure planning, human resource development (experience, skills, knowledge and attitude of the end users) are most common. Uhomoibhi (2006) stated that E-learning initiators, institutions must use and prepare strategies for adoption, diffusion and implementation. For a successful implementation of online environment where learners can actively learn and get support from well-organized approach is mandatory. Processes of planning, designing, development and evaluation are all parts of a successful implementation that could help to lower down the barriers of implementation (Uhomoibhi, 2006). An E-learning system can only be successful if it is significant to all stakeholders e.g. instructors, learners; support services staff and the institutions itself. In order for learners to become quickly accustomed to E-learning, it must be made sure that it is easily accessible, efficient, well designed course, affordable, and has a facilitated learning environment. Instructors must feel a sense of accomplishment when learners meet the goals and objectives of the course in a successful way. Technical support staff should feel happy when learners receive reliable services without interruptions. One of the most important factors for institutions is the profit they earn as well as the satisfaction of the learner and a low rate of dropouts (Khan, 2005). A strong foundation is required in order to have an effective implementation of E-learning. Aligning and communication are two important factors in implementation of E-learning system. It is necessary to make sure the communication is in order. Involvement of key stakeholders at the decision making stage or any other early process is very important(Khan, 2005). Communication is also important for those who are directly responsible for the implementation; and professionals also suggest a horizontal leadership style so that everyone is responsible for their actions. This includes individuals who are critical to the implementations success which include line, functional and divisional leaders. There should be consistent scheduled meetings with these individuals to discuss the newly arising issues in the project to come up with a solution (Khan, 2005). Most of the pitfalls of E-learning are tied to technological issues so it is important to involve IT leadership throughout the project to mitigate the problems in implementation process. Creation of helpdesk for reporting of IT related issues is more important. While selecting the vendors it is important to make sure that the vendors have an outstanding and proven record. Strong communication and feedback from vendors is a necessary step for a successful implementation (Khan, 2005). An overview of the critical issues in E-learning implementation Worldwide, E-learning arises as a new paradigm of advance education with a growing rate of 36.5 percent in the market, but still failures exist (Sun et al., 2008). As many companies are moving very fast to the adoption of E-learning in order to reap its benefits but they are facing significant barriers in its implementation and adoption, which leads them to implementation failure (Mungania, 2003). Hence, to mitigate this failure we have to investigate key factors that encompass different dimensions of an open, flexible and advanced distributed learning environment for diverse learners (Khan, 2005). Literature has mentioned a wide range of factors that can influence the successful implementation of E-learning e.g. some talks about pedagogical issues, faculty issues and organizational issues while some may have discussed about personal issues, cultural issues and some other issues. A broad range of factors that can influence the success of E-learning environments has been mentioned in the literature. However, there is no organized work to characterize collective group of most influential issues or factors, which could be seen as barriers Wong (2007). Distinct authors consider different barriers as most influential in implementation of E-learning Wong (2007). Wong (2007) has categorized E-learning limitations in three main areas; technological limitations, personal issues and other limitations. The lack of hardware, limited Internet coverage and low bandwidth are all consider as technological barriers in implementation of E- learning (Hiltz, 1997; Kathawala, Abdou, Elmulti, 2002; Wong, 2007). Kember et al., 2001; Dearnley, 2003) stated that personal issues are mostly related to learners and teachers. Teachers should give a complete guidance to the learners about this new and non-traditional system to prepare new learners psychologically (Wong, 2007 ; Kember et al., 2001; Dearnley, 2003). For learners the use of new technologies could be a disadvantage or barrier in E- learning. So the lack information, communication and technological skills might be barriers to E-learning because learners could get frustrated from this unconventional learning environment. (Wong, 2007 ; Carr, 1999; Hamid, 2002; Angelina, 2002a, p.12) The freedom provided by E-learning could be a disadvantage for the learners as internal motivation and self discipline is required at its maximum which learners may find hard to achieve in order to complete their studies or assignments in time. As (Wong, 2007 ; Kearsley, 2000) Schott et al., 2003; Rivera and Rice, 2002; Abouchedid and Eid, 2004).In E-learning environment students are usually supposed to communicate in a text based environment so learners poor writing ÂÂ ¨skills might be a disadvantage in E- learning. Therefore, the inability of communicating efficiently of learners could create misunderstandings (Wong, 2007; Smith Rupp, 2004). Others limitations: E-learning provides 247 access. This infinite work might be a disadvantage for learners and particularly for teachers. This unlimited work could over stress teachers, resulting in a low quality services from instructors. (Abdou Elmulti, 2002;. Dringus, 2003; Newton, 2003; Kathawala, Schifter, 2004).Poor course design could appear a major barrier in implementation of E-learning as it could frustrate the learners and teachers. (Young and Bal, 2003; Smulders, 2003; Howell, Williams Lindsay 2003; Gordon, Young Bal, 2003; Svensson, 2004; Ivergard Hunt, 2005 ;). Cronje (2009) sees some influential barriers such as student barriers are related to lack of financial support from their families and cooperation among peers and from teachers (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997). Faculty barriers the lack of funds is the most important one. Institutes attitude towards the lecturers that some time seems less prominent among their peers is considered another important barrier in successful E-learning (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997). Organizational barriers poor funding for three major costs areas are considered more crucial barriers e.g. Initial costs of the implementation process, maintenance and up gradation. Course barriers course design is regarded as most important one. Poor course design is one of reasons of inferiority of Distance learning. Conversion of teaching context in to electronic shape could not add any value to E-learning (Cronje, 2009; Galusha, 1997) Boondao et al. (2008) mentioned, It is not possible, in the view of some scholars, to create a model of the good teacher without taking issues of culture and context into account. The influence of culture cannot be ignored in successful implementation of E-learning. Considering learners from different culture e.g. east and west, learners from both cultures have particular approaches and styles of learning. Therefore, lack of consideration of cultural issues during designing could prove as a barrier in successful implementation of E-learning (Boondao et al, 2008). Discussing the different critical barriers Nowadays an escalating amount of companies are implementing E-learning System (Mungania, 2003). But as these companies try to take advantages of E-learning to gain strategic and competitive advantages in absolute urgency, there are significant number of barriers to the implementation of E-learning come across to halt them (Simmons, 2002, p.19 and Mungania, (2003). As E-learning barriers are diverse and can be classified as personal, organizational, situational, instructional and technological. (Mungania, 2003) Moreover Khans E-learning framework provides details on critical issues which may come across E-learning implementation process. Khans E-learning framework composed of eight dimensions: institutional, management, pedagogical, technological, interface design, ethical, evaluation, and resource support. Institutional Issues Institutions need to build a complete plan for the successful implementation of E learning system (Khan 2005, p.23). Moreover Childs et al (2005) stated that institution should focus on cultural aspects for the implementation process of E learning system which have a significant effect upon the success of E-learning process (Cronje, 2009).E-learning needs to be integrated to all departments of the institution therefore a strong commitment is needed from the institution and the trainers Childs et al (2005). Moreover, E-learning implementation plan must be fully aligned with the institutions ambitions and strategic plans (Galusha, 1997; Belanger and Jordan, 2000). Therefore E-learning implementation process is paradigm shift for the institution as a whole which includes learners, instructors, administrators, technical and other support services staff (Romiszowski, 2004). To support institutions in strategic planning, change management and process development which are necessary to highlight their embedding process and issues which may occur in their organization (Childs et al (2005) and Khan 2005,p.23). Khan has divided institution issue into three parts administrative affairs, academic affairs and student services (Khan 2005, p. 24). Administrative affairs which includes organization and change (implementation of E-learning system), budgeting and return on investment, course information catalog, financial aid, course schedule, tuition fees, registration and payment, information technology services, instructional design, whereas academic affairs issues such as policies, instructional quality, faculty and staff support, intellectual property rights and so on (Khan 2005, p. 24 ). Moreover Student services deals with student support services for E-learning effectiveness. Management issues Magalhaes (2008) stated that lack of management support is number one barrier towards successful implementation of E-learning system in institution. Management issues of E-learning in organization refers to various phases of administration such as scheduling, design, construction, assessment, delivery, and maintenance (Romiszowski 2003 and Parkham et al, 2004). Managing issues in organizations depend upon various elements including content delivery, and technology Trentin (2003). Khan (2005) also stated that for the success of E learning system institution must focus on three key areas people, process, and products involved in E-learning projects which depends upon integrated team approach (Jung, 2003).Critical management factors categorized by Khan (2005) are mentioned below: Technological Issues Technological limitations are among the major barriers for the success of E-learning system (Wong, 2007).Technological limitations of E-learning system relates to computer hardware, software and relevant resources (Wong, 2007).Connectivity problems, lack of training, navigation issues, limitations of 24/7 technical support, loss of data and incapability to save or transfer data are the most common technological limitations (Mungania, 2003). Usually small and medium enterprises fail to implement E-learning system due to lack of support in hardware and software (Sambrook, 2003;Wong, 2007).The technological issues can be divided into three parts infrastructure planning, hardware, and software (Kearsley, 2000; Rumble, 2000). Success of E learming system in organizations depends upon infrastructure planning which includes a well documented strategy, focusing on infrastructure. (McGraw, 2001; Romiszowski, 2004).As E-learning environment depends on digital infrastructure, there for institutions should have consistent and well-organized networks to support E-learning (khan 2005, p.154). Moreover institutions should develop policies and guidelines to cater various issues of hardware, software, and networks as institutions involved in implementation of E-learning may suffer. (Wong, 2007, Romiszowski, 2004) Learners require basic hardware for E-learning such as desktop or notebook computers and printers (Kathawala, Abdou, Elmulti, 2002;Hiltz, 1997, Wong, 2007). Therefore, one of the major technological limitations of E-learning is the availability of computer hardware (wong,2007). Major hardware limitations of E-learning system is the necessity of relevant resources which includes servers, modems, microphones, wireless devices, printers, scanners, computers, networking devices, cameras storage devices and other equipments. (Wong, 2007, Khan 2005, p.159) Institution experience similar problems such as software costs as well as software support cost, particularly for software licenses which acts as a significant barrier (khan 2005, p.159). Software includes word processors, databases, e-mail, presentation programs, reader software, browsers and plug-ins, spreadsheets, learning management systems (LMS), authoring tools and enterprise software and so on (LytasPauloudi,2001 and Khan 2005, p.159-160) Pedagogical Issues Success of E-learning systems implementation depends on the adherence to underlay pedagogical principles that are entrenched in the E-learning (Uhomoibhi, 2006). Pedagogical issues in E-learning are major challenges in distance education therefore a strong need of resources for development of the course material arises